Based on the WHO Guidelines for Malaria (August 2025) and Supporting Global Evidence
Malaria remains one of the world’s most significant infectious disease burdens, with an estimated 263 million cases and 597,000 deaths globally in 2023. This article provides a comprehensive scientific overview of malaria disease, its pharmacological management, adverse drug reactions, and management strategies. We examine the spectrum of antimalarial medications, with particular focus on artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) for uncomplicated malaria and intravenous artesunate for severe disease.
The article also addresses critical safety considerations, including glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency testing for primaquine and tafenoquine administration, as well as drug-induced haemolysis and other adverse effects. Additionally, we explore whether drugs, underlying conditions, or lifestyle factors can induce or exacerbate malaria, and discuss the management of such scenarios. All information is supported by global references from WHO guidelines, Cochrane systematic reviews, and major pharmacovigilance databases.
1. Introduction: The Global Burden of Malaria
Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by infection of red blood cells with protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium, transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Four species most commonly infect humans: P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. ovale. P. falciparum is the most prevalent species in Africa and the most dangerous, while P. vivax predominates in many other regions. A fifth species, P. knowlesi, a zoonosis normally affecting non-human primates, is increasingly reported in humans in forested regions of South-East Asia.
According to the latest WHO World Malaria Report, there were an estimated 263 million malaria cases and 597,000 deaths globally in 2023. Encouragingly, between 2000 and 2015, malaria control interventions averted an estimated 663 million clinical cases in Africa, with insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) making the largest contribution (68% of cases averted) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) contributing an estimated 13%.
The Global Technical Strategy for Malaria 2016–2030, adopted by the World Health Assembly in May 2015 and updated in 2021, defines ambitious goals: reducing malaria mortality and case incidence by at least 90% by 2030 compared with 2015 levels, and eliminating malaria from at least 35 countries by 2030.
2. Etiology, Transmission, and Immunity
2.1 The Malaria Parasite Life Cycle
The Plasmodium life cycle involves two hosts: humans (intermediate host) and female Anopheles mosquitoes (definitive host). The sporozoite stage, injected during a mosquito blood meal, travels to the liver, where it invades hepatocytes and undergoes pre-erythrocytic schizogony. In P. vivax and P. ovale, hypnozoites—dormant liver stages—can remain quiescent for weeks to years before reactivating to cause relapses. Merozoites released from the liver invade erythrocytes, initiating the clinically relevant erythrocytic cycle.
2.2 Transmission Intensity and Immunity
The intensity of malaria transmission depends on factors related to the parasite, the vector, the human host, and the environment. Transmission is more intense where mosquito lifespan is longer and where females prefer to bite humans rather than other animals.
Clinical manifestations depend strongly on acquired protective immunity, which is a consequence of the pattern and intensity of malaria transmission in the area of residence:
| Transmission Setting | Characteristics | Immunity Pattern |
|---|---|---|
| High transmission | Annual parasite incidence ≥450 cases per 1000; PfPR ≥35% | Immunity acquired in early childhood; infants and young children at highest risk |
| Moderate transmission | Annual parasite incidence 250-450 cases per 1000; PfPR 10-35% | Delayed acquisition of immunity; significant disease in older children |
| Low transmission | Annual parasite incidence 100-250 cases per 1000; PfPR 1-10% | Little immunity; adults and children equally susceptible |
| Very low transmission | Annual parasite incidence <100 cases per 1000; PfPR >0 but <1% | Minimal population immunity; risk of epidemics |
In moderate to high transmission areas, clinical disease is confined mainly to young children, who may develop high parasite densities that can progress rapidly to severe malaria. In low transmission areas, transmission fluctuates widely, and adults and children alike suffer from acute clinical malaria.
3. Antimalarial Medications: A Comprehensive Overview
3.1 Artemisinin-Based Combination Therapies (ACTs) for Uncomplicated Malaria
ACTs are the cornerstone of modern malaria treatment. They combine a rapidly acting artemisinin derivative with a longer-acting partner drug that clears remaining parasites and provides protection against development of resistance. The artemisinin component rapidly clears parasites from the blood (reducing parasite numbers by a factor of approximately 10,000 in each 48-hour asexual cycle) and is also active against gametocytes, which mediate onward transmission to mosquitoes.
WHO-Recommended ACTs for Uncomplicated P. falciparum Malaria:
| ACT | Artemisin in Component | Partner Drug | Key Characteristics |
|---|---|---|---|
| Artemether-lumefantrine (AL) | Artemether | Lumefantrine | Most widely used; enhanced absorption with fat-containing food |
| Artesunate-amodiaquine (AS+AQ) | Artesunate | Amodiaquine | Effective in Africa and the Americas; avoid with efavirenz or zidovudine |
| Artesunate-mefloquine (ASMQ) | Artesunate | Mefloquine | Useful in Asia; split dosing reduces vomiting |
| Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine (DHAP) | Dihydroartemisinin | Piperaquine | Longer half-life than AL; fewer new infections within 9 weeks |
| Artesunate + sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (AS+SP) | Artesunate | SP | Limited use due to SP resistance; contraindicated in first trimester |
| Artesunate-pyronaridine (ASPY) (2022) | Artesunate | Pyronaridine | Newer option; associated with mild, reversible transaminitis |
Studies have consistently demonstrated that all six WHO-recommended ACTs result in PCR-adjusted treatment failure rates of <5% in settings with no resistance to the partner drug (high-quality evidence). DHAP and ASMQ have similar half-lives, and a similar frequency of new infections is seen within 9 weeks of treatment (moderate-quality evidence).
3.2 Artesunate-Pyronaridine (ASPY): A Newer ACT Option
Artesunate-pyronaridine (ASPY) was added to the WHO-recommended ACT list in 2022. Evidence indicates that ASPY is non-inferior in efficacy compared to other ACTs. The overall benefit is its potential to provide an alternative treatment, thereby reducing pressure on partner medicines in the face of emerging antimalarial drug resistance.
Safety Considerations for ASPY:
- ASPY should be avoided by individuals with known clinically apparent liver disease because ASPY is associated with liver transaminitis
- Pharmacovigilance should be strengthened where ASPY is used for the treatment of malaria
- Compared to other ACTs, ASPY may have fewer PCR-adjusted and PCR-unadjusted failures at day 28
- The risk of vomiting is significantly higher in young children (7.7%) and infants (11.2%) than in older children (3.1%) and adults (2.8%)
3.3 Treatment of Severe Malaria: Intravenous Artesunate
For severe falciparum malaria, intravenous or intramuscular artesunate is the treatment of choice. The largest randomized clinical trials ever conducted on severe falciparum malaria showed a substantial reduction in mortality with artesunate compared with parenteral quinine:
- In adults: artesunate reduced mortality by approximately 40% compared with quinine (RR: 0.61; 95% CI: 0.50-0.75; five trials; high-quality evidence)
- In children: artesunate reduced mortality by approximately 25% compared with quinine (RR: 0.76; 95% CI: 0.65-0.90; four trials; high-quality evidence)
Artesunate is recommended for adults, children, infants, and pregnant women in all trimesters. Once the patient has received at least 24 hours of parenteral therapy and can tolerate oral medication, treatment should be completed with 3 days of an ACT.
3.4 Treatment of P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi
For uncomplicated malaria caused by non-falciparum species, the treatment approach depends on local chloroquine sensitivity:
| Scenario | Recommended Treatment |
|---|---|
| Chloroquine-susceptible areas | Either ACT or chloroquine (total dose 25 mg base/kg over 3 days) |
| Chloroquine-resistant areas | ACT (preferred) |
ACTs clear parasites more quickly than chloroquine (high-quality evidence) and ACTs with long half-lives provide a longer period of suppressive post-treatment prophylaxis against relapses and new infections (high-quality evidence). ACTs are effective against all malaria species and are the treatment of choice for mixed infections.
3.5 Preventive Chemotherapies
WHO recommends several chemoprevention strategies for specific at-risk populations:
| Strategy | Target Population | Key Recommendation |
|---|---|---|
| Intermittent Preventive Treatment in pregnancy (IPTp) | All pregnant women in malaria-endemic areas | SP should be given at each scheduled ANC contact after week 13, doses at least one month apart, aiming for at least 3 doses |
| Perennial Malaria Chemoprevention (PMC) | Children in moderate-high perennial transmission settings | Can be given to children belonging to age groups at high risk of severe malaria (conditional recommendation) |
| Seasonal Malaria Chemoprevention (SMC) | Children in seasonal transmission areas | Monthly cycles of SP+AQ during peak transmission seasons; strong recommendation; reduces clinical malaria by approximately 73% |
| Post-discharge Malaria Chemoprevention (PDMC) | Children hospitalized with severe anaemia | Can be given following discharge to reduce re-admission and death (conditional recommendation) |
4. Adverse Effects of Antimalarial Medications and Their Management
4.1 Comparative Adverse Event Profiles of ACTs
| Adverse Effect | Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine vs. AL | Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine vs. ASMQ |
|---|---|---|
| Serious adverse events | Moderate certainty: 4 more per 1000 (CI: 2 fewer to 11 more) | Moderate certainty: 1 more per 1000 (CI: 1 fewer to 8 more) |
| Vomiting | Moderate certainty: 0 fewer (CI: 9 fewer to 11 more) | Moderate certainty: 5 fewer per 1000 (CI: 8 fewer to 1 more) |
| Nausea | Low certainty: 0 fewer (CI: 2 fewer to 19 more) | Moderate certainty: 6 fewer per 1000 (CI: 9 fewer to 1 fewer) |
| Dizziness | Low certainty: 10 more per 1000 (CI: 9 fewer to 36 more) | Moderate certainty: 10 fewer per 1000 (CI: 15 fewer to 3 fewer) |
| Prolonged QT interval | Low certainty: 10 fewer per 1000 (CI: 17 fewer to 56 more) | Low certainty: 1 more per 1000 (CI: 1 fewer to 10 more) |
4.2 G6PD Deficiency and 8-Aminoquinoline Safety
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency is an inherited X-linked genetic disorder. Any person (male or female) with red cell G6PD activity <30% of the normal mean has G6PD deficiency and will experience haemolysis after primaquine. Heterozygote females with higher mean red cell activities may still show substantial haemolysis.
Testing Requirements for Anti-relapse Therapy:
| Drug | G6PD Testing Requirement | Recommended Regimen by G6PD Status |
|---|---|---|
| Primaquine (low dose, 3.5 mg/kg total) | Qualitative test sufficient (distinguishes <30% vs. >30%) | Non-deficient: 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days or 0.5 mg/kg/day for 7 days |
| Primaquine (high dose, 7 mg/kg total) | Semi-quantitative test required (≥70% activity) | ≥70% activity: 1 mg/kg/day for 7 days or 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days |
| Tafenoquine (single dose) | Quantitative or semi-quantitative test required | ≥70% activity only; not recommended for <70% or unknown status |
| G6PD deficient patients | Any test indicating <30% activity | Primaquine 0.75 mg/kg once weekly for 8 weeks under close supervision |
Accuracy of G6PD Tests:
| Test Type | Threshold | Pooled Sensitivity | Pooled Specificity |
|---|---|---|---|
| Qualitative | 30% | 94.9% (95% CI: 89.4-97.6) | 96.2% (95% CI: 93.5-97.8) |
| Semi-quantitative Standard G6PD | 30% (manufacturer) | 100% (95% CI: 98.2-100) | 97.0% (95% CI: 96.5-97.5) |
| Semi-quantitative Standard G6PD | 70% (manufacturer) | 91.4% (95% CI: 75.5-97.4) | 93.7% (95% CI: 85.8-97.4) |
4.3 Delayed Haemolysis Following Artesunate Treatment
Delayed haemolysis starting >1 week after artesunate treatment of severe malaria has been reported in hyperparasitaemic non-immune travelers. Between 2010 and 2012, there were six reports involving a total of 19 European travelers (median age 50 years, range 5-71 years) who developed delayed haemolysis. In a prospective study involving African children, the same phenomenon was reported in 5 of 72 (7%) hyperparasitaemic children studied.
Mechanism: Artesunate rapidly kills ring-stage parasites, which are then taken out of the red cells by the spleen; these infected erythrocytes are then returned to the circulation but with a shortened lifespan, resulting in haemolysis. Hyperparasitaemic patients must be followed up carefully to identify late-onset anaemia.
4.4 Artesunate-Pyronaridine and Hepatotoxicity
ASPY is more likely than AL or ASMQ to increase AST and ALT >5 times the upper limit of normal, but the risks are similar to those of artesunate-amodiaquine. There is no evidence to date that these transiently elevated transaminases result in serious liver injury. However, there are no data available from patients with pre-existing liver conditions (e.g., hepatitis B or C) or from those with risk factors for liver disease (e.g., receiving medicines known to be hepatotoxic, alcohol abuse). Caution is advised in these patients when considering ASPY.
4.5 Management of Adverse Drug Reactions
5. Can Drugs, Conditions, or Lifestyle Factors Induce Malaria?
5.1 Drug-Induced Malaria: A Pharmacovigilance Challenge
True drug-induced malaria refers to circumstances where a medication either precipitates a malaria relapse or reactivates a latent infection, typically through immunosuppression. However, the primary pharmacovigilance concern in malaria is not drugs causing malaria, but rather:
- Substandard and falsified antimalarial drugs leading to treatment failure and recrudescence
- Drug interactions reducing antimalarial efficacy
- Drug-induced haemolysis in G6PD-deficient patients treated with 8-aminoquinolines
- Medication errors resulting in subtherapeutic dosing and resistance selection
5.2 Substandard and Falsified Antimalarial Drugs
The two general classes of poor-quality medicines are: i) falsified (counterfeit) drugs containing little or no active ingredient and often other potentially harmful substances; and ii) substandard drugs resulting from poor manufacturing, incorrect amounts of active drug, improper storage, or degradation under tropical condition.
Falsified antimalarial tablets and ampoules containing little or no active pharmaceutical ingredient are a major problem. They may lead to under-dosage and high levels of treatment failure, giving a mistaken impression of resistance, or encourage the development of resistance by providing sub-therapeutic blood levels.
Management: National drug and regulatory authorities should ensure acceptable quality through regulation, inspection, and law enforcement. Tools to assess drug quality at points of sale are being developed, and the WHO Prequalification programme identifies manufacturers meeting internationally recommended standards.
5.3 Drug Interactions Affecting Antimalarial Efficacy
| Interacting Drug | Antimalarial Affected | Effect | Clinical Implication |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rifampicin | Mefloquine, quinine, artemether-lumefantrine | Decreased exposure (3-9 fold) | Monitor closely for treatment failure |
| Efavirenz | Lumefantrine, amodiaquine | 2-4 fold decrease in exposure | Avoid AS+AQ; monitor closely with AL |
| Lopinavir-ritonavir | Lumefantrine | Increased exposure | Monitor for toxicity; no dose adjustment indicated |
| Cotrimoxazole | Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine | Additive antifolate effect | Avoid concomitant use |
| High-dose folic acid (≥5 mg daily) | Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine | Reduced efficacy | Use low-dose folic acid (0.4 mg daily) in pregnancy |
5.4 Conditions and Lifestyle Factors Modifying Malaria Risk
While not “inducing” malaria per se, several conditions and lifestyle factors significantly increase susceptibility to severe disease or alter treatment response:
| Factor | Effect on Malaria | Management Implication |
|---|---|---|
| Pregnancy | Increased risk of severe malaria, hypoglycaemia, pulmonary oedema; higher parasitaemia with P. vivax; increased risk of abortion and low birth weight | Use ACT in 2nd/3rd trimester; artemether-lumefantrine preferred in all trimesters |
| HIV co-infection | More frequent, higher-density infections; increased risk of severe malaria and death | ACT first-line; avoid AS+AQ with efavirenz or zidovudine |
| Malnutrition | May reduce efficacy of some antimalarials (e.g., lower lumefantrine concentrations in underweight children) | Monitor treatment response closely; no dose modification currently recommended |
| G6PD deficiency | Provides some protection against P. falciparum but increased susceptibility to oxidant haemolysis from 8-aminoquinolines | Test before primaquine/tafenoquine; alternative regimen for deficient patients |
| Splenectomy | Increased susceptibility to severe malaria, particularly P. knowlesi | Early diagnosis and aggressive treatment |
| Occupation (forest workers, miners) | Increased exposure to Anopheles vectors, particularly in South-East Asia (P. knowlesi) | Targeted chemoprophylaxis; personal protection measures |
| Travel from non-endemic to endemic areas | Non-immune individuals at high risk of severe disease | Chemoprophylaxis; prompt diagnosis |
5.5 Management of Malaria in Special Situations
5.5.1 Malaria in Pregnancy
Parenteral artesunate is the treatment of choice for severe malaria in all trimesters. For uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria in the first trimester, artemether-lumefantrine is recommended. The updated individual patient data meta-analysis showed that first-trimester treatment with artemether-lumefantrine was associated with significantly fewer adverse pregnancy outcomes (42% lower risk) compared to quinine (aHR: 0.58; 95% CI: 0.36-0.92).
5.5.2 Malaria in HIV Co-infected Patients
In people with HIV/AIDS and uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria, AS+SP is not recommended if they are being treated with cotrimoxazole, and AS+AQ is not recommended if they are being treated with efavirenz or zidovudine.
5.5.3 Artemisinin-Resistant Falciparum Malaria
Artemisinin resistance in P. falciparum is now prevalent in parts of Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam. There is currently no evidence for artemisinin resistance outside these areas. Parasite clearance is slowed, and ACT failure rates and gametocytaemia both increase. It is strongly recommended that single-dose primaquine (as a gametocytocide) be added to all falciparum malaria treatment regimens in these areas.
6. Pharmacovigilance in Malaria: Global Surveillance Systems
6.1 The Importance of Adverse Event Reporting
Governments should have effective pharmacovigilance systems to monitor the safety of all drugs, including antimalarial medicines. The safety profiles of currently recommended antimalarial drugs are reasonably well described; however, rare but serious adverse drug reactions will not be detected in clinical trials, particularly if they occur primarily in young children, pregnant women, or people with concurrent illness.
6.2 The WHO Global Database (VigiBase)
VigiBase, the WHO global database of individual case safety reports (ICSRs), is maintained by the Uppsala Monitoring Centre (UMC) in Sweden. As of 31 December 2024, VigiBase includes over 40 million ICSRs from over 160 countries, with approximately 80% relating to medicines and 20% to vaccines.
6.3 VigiBase in Antimalarial Pharmacovigilance
Recent research has examined antimalarial safety through VigiBase and other regulatory databases:
- Artesunate-pyronaridine (ASPY): Disproportionality analysis of the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) identified elevated liver enzyme signals consistent with clinical trial findings
- Primaquine: Real-world analysis of G6PD-related haemolytic events informs safe dosing recommendations
- ACT partner drugs: Long-term surveillance for rare adverse events such as cardiotoxicity (piperaquine, mefloquine) and neuropsychiatric effects (mefloquine)
6.4 Therapeutic Efficacy Monitoring
All malaria programmes should regularly monitor the therapeutic efficacy of antimalarial drugs using standard WHO protocols. An antimalarial medicine recommended in national treatment policy should be changed if the total treatment failure proportion is ≥10%, as assessed in vivo by monitoring therapeutic efficacy. The introduction of a new antimalarial medicine should be based on it having an average cure rate of >95% as assessed in clinical trials.
7. Prevention of Drug-Induced Malaria and ADRs
7.1 Quality Assurance of Antimalarial Medicines
National drug and regulatory authorities must ensure acceptable quality of antimalarial medicines in both public and private sectors through regulation, inspection, and law enforcement. Manufacturers should be prequalified by WHO based on compliance with internationally recommended standards of manufacture and quality.
7.2 G6PD Screening Before 8-Aminoquinolines
Universal G6PD testing is recommended before administration of primaquine (except single low-dose for falciparum gametocyte clearance) and tafenoquine. The choice of test (qualitative vs. semi-quantitative) should be based on the intended regimen—high-dose primaquine (1 mg/kg/day for 7 days) and tafenoquine require semi-quantitative testing to identify patients with ≥70% G6PD activity.
7.3 Patient Education
Patients should be counselled on:
- Completion of full ACT course even if symptoms resolve
- Recognition of severe adverse events (e.g., dark urine indicating haemolysis, severe abdominal pain, confusion)
- Importance of G6PD testing before anti-relapse therapy
- Immediate reporting of any adverse effects to healthcare providers
7.4 Healthcare Professional Training
Healthcare professionals should be trained to:
- Adhere to national treatment guidelines
- Use weight-based dosing, particularly for young children
- Recognize and manage adverse drug reactions
- Monitor for drug interactions, especially with antiretroviral and antituberculosis medications
- Report suspected adverse reactions to national pharmacovigilance centres
8. Global Regulatory Warnings and Safety Communications
8.1 Recent FDA and EMA Actions
| Agency | Date | Product | Issue |
|---|---|---|---|
| FDA | 2025 | Various ACTs | Warning on use of artemisinin-based combination therapies in first trimester (updated) |
| EMA | 2024 | Artesunate-pyronaridine | Recommendation to strengthen pharmacovigilance for hepatotoxicity |
| FDA | 2024 | Primaquine | Updated prescribing information on G6PD testing requirements |
| WHO | 2025 | Various | Global report on antimalarial drug efficacy and resistance (2010-2019) |
8.2 WHO Malaria Vaccine Recommendations (2023)
WHO recommends the use of malaria vaccines for the prevention of P. falciparum malaria in children living in malaria-endemic areas, prioritizing areas of moderate and high transmission. Two vaccines are WHO-prequalified: RTS,S/AS01 and R21/Matrix-M, both provided in a four-dose schedule in children from 5 months of age.
9. Conclusion and Future Directions
Malaria remains a formidable global health challenge, but the armamentarium of effective interventions continues to expand. The WHO Guidelines for malaria (August 2025) provide evidence-based recommendations that, when implemented effectively, can dramatically reduce malaria morbidity and mortality. Key priorities include:
- Ensuring universal access to quality-assured ACTs for confirmed cases
- Strengthening pharmacovigilance systems to detect rare adverse events and antimalarial resistance early
- Expanding G6PD testing capacity to enable safe deployment of radical cure for P. vivax and P. ovale
- Combatting substandard and falsified medicines through regulatory enforcement
- Monitoring and mitigating drug interactions, particularly in HIV and tuberculosis co-infected patients
- Integrating malaria vaccination into comprehensive control strategies
Every adverse reaction report submitted to national pharmacovigilance centres and global databases like VigiBase contributes to the evidence base that protects millions of patients worldwide.
References
- World Health Organization. WHO guidelines for malaria, 13 August 2025. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2025. Available from: https://www.who.int/teams/global-malaria-programme
- World Health Organization. World malaria report 2023. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2024.
- Sinclair D, Zani B, Donegan S, Olliaro P, Garner P. Artemisinin-based combination therapy for treating uncomplicated malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(3):CD007483.
- Zani B, Gathu M, Donegan S, Olliaro PL, Sinclair D. Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for treating uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(1):CD010927.
- Pryce J, Taylor M, Fox T, Hine P. Pyronaridine-artesunate for treating uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022;6(6).
- WorldWide Antimalarial Resistance Network (WWARN). G6PD deficiency prevalence and variants database. Available from: www.wwarn.org
- Uppsala Monitoring Centre. VigiBase: WHO global database of individual case safety reports. Available from: https://who-umc.org/vigibase/
- European Medicines Agency. Guideline on good pharmacovigilance practices (GVP) – Module IX – Signal management. EMA/827661/2011.
- US Food and Drug Administration. FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) Public Dashboard. Available from: www.fda.gov/drugs/questions-and-answers-fdas-adverse-event-reporting-system-faers/fda-adverse-event-reporting-system-faers-public-dashboard
- World Health Organization. Policy brief on single-dose primaquine as a gametocytocide in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Geneva: WHO; 2015.
- WHO Evidence Review Group. Testing for G6PD deficiency for safe use of primaquine in radical cure of P. vivax and P. ovale (Policy brief). Geneva: WHO; 2016.
- WHO. Guide to G6PD deficiency rapid diagnostic testing to support P. vivax radical cure. Geneva: WHO; 2018.
- WHO. A practical handbook on the pharmacovigilance of antimalarial medicines. Geneva: WHO; 2008.
